‘Old age has its pleasures, which, though different, are not less than the pleasures of youth’
The Greek poet Anacreon (c. 572–488 BC) wrote one of the earliest poems about old age, and it strikes a cheerful note:
A happy old age is what many people spend their lives preparing for, particularly with regard to financial security and good health. But what is our lifestyle? How varied is it and is there much pleasure still to be had as one ages? Can one enjoy old age? This is an important question. There are at present 10 million in the UK over 65 and there will be double that in ten years’ time. There are one million over 85.
Nobody wants to be old, but old age doesn’t have to be a time of despair. Joan Bakewell offers a positive view: ‘In their leisure time, the old aren’t just boozing and cruising: the hardier spirits are climbing mountains, visiting the pole, meeting sponsored challenges. I have a friend in his late seventies who has recently taken up tap-dancing.’ I interviewed Joan after she had been asked to become ‘the voice of older people’:
When I was 70 I wanted to reinvent myself, it was time to start something new. So I managed to start a column in the Guardian called ‘Just Seventy’. It was up to me to have the idea—no one was going to come to me with it. My column was about being 70 and all the things you have to adjust to. For example, for women I wrote about them having to give up high heels, and children, and other changes. Also old women become socially invisible when they have lost their high heels. Sheila Hancock says she always asks for a corner table and then others around her will have been served before anyone has even brought her the menu. My columns were eventually put into a book which is still in print. And then the government in 2008 came to me—Harriet Harman phoned and said parliament was trying to outlaw ageism and would I be the voice of the older people. I only agreed to do it part-time as I wanted to continue to do my own work. I said I would pass on to her everything they tell me. I no longer do it.
There are important differences between men and women as they get old. Their patterns diverge as men remain fertile, have children, have second wives, have a renewing life. Women know that they are no longer biologically needed and so they are in a psychological sense ready to grow old. I am rather against that. They can start to wear clothes designed for older people, sensible, rather neutral clothes that do not have any style to them, like your mother and grandmother did, but many are becoming more fashion conscious. I colour my hair as that keeps you looking a bit younger.
A lot of people worry about money, it’s almost biological. They worry if they will have enough and where it is going to come from. The state pension is tiny and many have to live a lifestyle on a tiny amount of money. There is a sense of loss, things are not what they were—your children have flown the nest and your grandchildren have grown up. Living on your own as I do can present problems unless you have an attitude towards it. Many worry about how they will be right at the end of their lives and not being able to look after themselves—that is what I am making a TV programme about. Will they have to sell their house to pay for a carer, which is very expensive? Will they have to go into care? And that spoils their pleasure in being quite comfortable, having time on their hands, going out, playing golf. The absence of a competitive compulsion in life to do and achieve can make one much more relaxed. I do not get bored—too many books to read and films to see.
One feature of getting old is that your contemporaries die, and I have begun to make friends with younger people. New friendships are a blessing in old age. I am set on continuing to my mid-nineties—will keep working, travel—but I have signed the documents for non-resuscitation should I get very ill and go, for example into a coma. I am for euthanasia and support dignity in dying.
An important book that gives accounts of a diverse number of individuals’ views of ageing is About Time: Growing Old Disgracefully by Irma Kurtz. She herself wrote: ‘Talking to men and women of my generation, I am struck again and again about how we shed freight from that heavy goods vehicle, memory, as we age and gently drift back to early events that were the making of us. Growing old, as it separates us from the world, returns us to our original selves.’
Some researchers into the psychology and social aspects of ageing have distinguished between a third and a fourth age. In the third age, retirees from the work force are in relatively good health and are socially engaged, and it is a time of personal achievement and fulfilment—‘You’re looking very well.’ In the fourth age, usually over 85, there is the onset of most of the negative stereotypes of old age—functional breakdown of the psychological system, loss of positive wellbeing, psychological dependence on others, poor memory and impaired reasoning. Physical and mental deterioration are what we fear most, but in fact many over 85 are well and active, and many of today’s pensioners enjoy a financial security unheard of in earlier generations. No association has been found between levels of mental ability when young and reported happiness when old. Quite the opposite has been found with health, as there is a high correlation between intelligence when young and good health when old.
Very old people rarely, it is said, covet status, rank or wealth. For many there is no longer the the problem of either looking for or having to work. There is much less anger and anxiety as one becomes more experienced, and understands so much more about life. Then there is the pleasure of becoming a grandparent, and the possibility of pursuing new interests Curiously, the old do not partake of the arts as much as those who are younger. Only a quarter of those aged over 75 have been to a museum or gallery in the last year. But equally, a quarter of those over 75 are involved in volunteering at least once a month for community activities.
Even at age 75-plus, a majority of people do not think of themselves as old, and many think of themselves as quite a few years younger. Perceptions do matter, and many are concerned that as they age they will lose respect and their health will deteriorate. Those who think of themselves as younger than their actual age have better health than those who think of themselves as older. Which comes first, the attitude to age or the better health, will only be settled as more longitudinal data become available.
ELSA (English Longitudinal Study of Ageing) found that about half the population of people 52 years and over describe ageing as a positive experience, and this contradicts a widely held belief that ageing is a negative process. But while ageing is described as negative by a minority, negative experiences of ageing are far more common amongst the poorest than the richest. Only one in five worry about growing older, but health is a key feature in their lives. The young perceive old age to start at 68, while the old see it as 75. Three fifths of those aged 80 and older were very positive about their health. A majority believe retirement is a time of leisure. The wealthier think it starts later than those not so wealthy. For many of the old ‘ninety’ is the new ‘seventy’ and these nonagenarians can be very active—travelling, learning and being with their family and friends. It is likely that 80-year-olds will in the future live as 60-year-olds live now.
Among Americans only 12 per cent said retirement would be the best years of their lives and about two thirds said their biggest concern about old age was becoming ill, and were afraid of losing their memory. About a quarter of those over 65 say they are in good or excellent health. Several surveys of the old show ageing is a positive experience for the majority: they do not think of themselves as old and feel younger than they are. Among those who would prefer it if they were younger, the mean desired age of those aged 65 was 42.
The elderly’s level of religious participation in the US is greater than that of any other age group. For the elderly, the religious community is the largest source of social support outside of the family, and involvement in religious organisations is the most common type of voluntary social activity. Religious faith among older people effectively offers a sense of meaning, control and self-esteem, and helps in coping with the stress of old age. There is also some evidence to show that the religious live longer.
A Pew Research survey in the US asked about a wide range of potential benefits of old age. Good health, good friends and financial security predict happiness. Seven in ten respondents aged 65 and older said they were enjoying more time with their family; about two thirds enjoyed more time for hobbies, having financial security and not having to work. About six in ten say they get more respect and feel less stress than when they were younger. Daily prayer and meditation both increased with age. Among those aged 75 and older, just 35 per cent said they feel old.
The attitudes of the old to being old can, of course, vary widely. The interviews with elderly men in Don’t Call Me Grumpy by Francis MacNab are revealing, and the advice in Enjoy Old Age by the psychologist B. F. Skinner and M. E. Vaughan is helpful. I find attractive this comment which they record as being given by several of the elderly: ‘Thank God I no longer have to be nice to people.’ There is also a noticeable tendency in some of the old to look back on their lives and try to make it coherent. And of course some say to themselves that life is no longer worth living: it is the same every day, what is the purpose of going on?
While the old experience declining health and the sense of being mortal, many maintain their wellbeing and are less troubled when exposed to negative emotions. Older adults are better at avoiding negative affect and maintaining positive affect, and they have better memory for positive pictures than negative ones. But for some old age is not good. I interviewed the Nobel Laureate novelist Doris Lessing, who is 91. What does she feel about being old? ‘I feel irritated. I also do not feel as well as I should and I am not outside gardening. I am irritated that my health is not as good as it should be. I started feeing like this about a year ago. There are no good things about being old and I am short of everything. I am irritable and do not really like being irritable. My son is unwell as well. I would not like to go on living for long—it gets me down. I am not writing.’ By contrast, the philosopher Mary Midgley, who is also 91 and who has just written another book, told me that when she gives a lecture she now enjoys the advantage of no longer minding what people think about her ideas.
The older pursue more emotionally meaningful goals, while the younger look for broader horizons. They are also less sensation-seeking. And they avoid physical risk, though can be fond of gambling. Many positively enjoy retirement and old age. In the arts there are many examples of creative people who have worked till they were old, albeit with some problems. Michelangelo, at 88, was designing the monumental dome of St Peter’s Basilica; Stradivarius, in his 90s, produced two of his most famous violins; Verdi composed the opera Falstaff when an octogenarian. Bach and Beethoven were still creative composers in their old age. Rembrandt and da Vinci painted self-portraits that reflected their age; Goya at 70 made his look like a man of 50. Chateaubriand, the French writer and diplomat, so hated his ageing face he refused to have his portrait painted. But there was old Rembrandt with his penetrating self-portraits; old Titian’s sensuous paintings of virgins; and Yeats’s later works were his best. A recent pleasing example of the old being given key roles in a famous play was at the Old Vic in Bristol, where Sian Phillips at 76 played Juliet to Michael Byrne’s 66-year-old Romeo. Judy Dench played Titania in a 2010 production of A Midsummer Night’s Dream aged 75, for the 79-year-old director Peter Hall, 48 years after first stepping out in the role.
There has been a significant change in the sociology of ageing since the 1950s generation aged. They have a different perception, much influenced by greater affluence. There are more lifestyle choices, and those who were spenders when young continued as they aged. At the end of the century, retired people had more wealth than those of working age, and residential mobility had increased among the retirees. The common perception among advertising agencies is that younger age groups spend more than older age groups, but recent studies show consumers aged 65 to 74 outspend their counterparts in the 35-to-44 age group. About one in six women are now pensioners and this will probably increase to one in four over the next ten years. The idea that these women are becoming doddery and inactive is wrong. This is an image that relates to the situation 30 years ago. Now, to the contrary, the evidence is that many are active and young looking.
Older adults experience fewer stressful life events than younger adults. They have, for example, less marital conflict and job stress. Old men are less critical of their bodies than women. A study or 340,000 Americans found that levels of stress began to decline in their early 20s and when they reached 50 then worry decreased, and happiness and enjoyment then increased till 85. It is almost like having, the researchers claimed, a new life that begins at 40. There is new wisdom and the old are better able to view their life circumstances positively. Those who age successfully are in good health, with high levels of mental and physical activity, and active involvement with their environment. Most older people take a holistic view of what ‘health’ means, including wellbeing and social factors, and in general take a positive view. Social contact remains a central issue for the aged, and there is a decline in interest in national issues, yet about two thirds of the aged turn out to vote at elections in the UK. More of them vote more than young people, and their vote is very important to all the political parties.
Adults are very capable of learning well into their 70s, which is a good reason to accept lifelong learning as more than just a pleasant mantra. Likewise, it seems beneficial for teachers in the higher educational setting to be aware of the differences between the older learner and the traditional college-age student. The differences are somewhat subtle, so it will take effort on the part of an instructor to understand and implement appropriate strategies. Learning in later life contributes to physical and mental health and wellbeing. It is also associated with increased self-confidence and community activity. But participation in further education for older people is very low, with only 10 per cent of the over 75s being involved. The focus is on the young, the under 25s; and just 1 per cent of the education budget is given to the old. There should be more funds to help those who are starting new careers as they age.
The University of the Third Age provides many opportunities for the elderly. It offers the chance to study over 300 different subjects in such fields as art, languages, music, history, life sciences, philosophy, computing, crafts, photography and walking, and the number increase each year. The membership of a typical University of the Third Age is about 250, but can be as small as 12 and as large as 2,000. Their approach is learning for pleasure, as there are no assessments or qualifications to be gained. Individual membership rose to over 230,000 in England in 2009.
Exclusion from computers and the web is particularly pronounced for older people‚ with only 30 per cent of people aged 65 and over ever using the internet. Computers are being modified for the old with larger power buttons and easy-to-read menus. But it has been suggested that computer games may be bad for the elderly as they can decrease participation in more effective lifestyle interventions such as exercise. Only 20 per cent of those aged 65 to 74 and just 7 per cent of over 75s do enough exercise—30 minutes, five times a week.
When making choices about how to live, middle-aged and older adults attempt to preserve and maintain existing ways, and they prefer to accomplish this by using strategies tied to their past experiences. This may not always be wise, as a survey in 2006 of pensioners showed. They were asked what in their lives they would change if they could have their time again. While about one fifth would have married a different spouse, about one half would have saved more, and nearly three quarters would have had more sex. Old age can provide a useful excuse for men whose sexual abilities are failing. There are claims that the elderly get less pleasure from sexual intercourse, and they thus seek pleasure in erotic literature and the company of young women, and even voyeurism. Alison Park, co-director of the National Centre for Social Research’s British Social Attitudes survey, says that on issues such as marriage, pre-marital sex and homosexuality, ‘it doesn’t follow that people become more restrictive in their attitudes as they get older. People’s attitudes are shaped when they are quite young and stay with them.’
It is important to dispel the myth that as men get older their sexual abilities will significantly decrease. There’s really no physiological or anatomical reason why a healthy man who takes good care of himself, and who doesn’t have attendant medical problems, shouldn’t be able to have a fulfilling and active sexual life. A comprehensive national survey of senior sexual attitudes, behaviours and problems in the United States has found that most people aged 57 to 85 think of sexuality as an important part of life and that the frequency of sexual activity, for those who are active, declines only slightly from the 50s to the early 70s, and that this activity continues into the 80s.
If the old have energy for sex, they also have sufficient energy for crime. In England and Wales, prisoners aged over 60 are the fastest growing age group in prison. The increase in the elderly prison population is due to harsher sentencing policies, which have resulted in the courts sending a larger proportion of criminals aged over 60 to prison to serve longer sentences. Between 1995 and 2000 the number of elderly males given custodial sentences increased by 55 per cent. In 2007 there were some two thousand prisoners aged over 60 in England and Wales, including about four hundred over 70. The majority of elderly men in prison were there for sex offences. The next highest offence was violence against the person, followed by drug offences. More than half of all elderly prisoners suffer from a mental disorder, mainly depression, which may be caused by or aggravated by imprisonment. In the USA, the number of prisoners over 50 is more than twice as many as a decade earlier.
One of the greatest pleasures of old age is having grandchildren—I have six. They usually need a minimum of care and they are a delight. Perhaps they will help look after me in my very old age—but I would not rely on it. Looking after grandchildren is a possible role for the old. Patsy Drysdale from Stranraer was crowned the UK’s best grandparent in the 2008 Age Concern Grandparent of the Year Awards in association with Specsavers. The annual competition‚ now in its 19th year‚ is a celebration of how important grandparents are to family life. It gives grandchildren the chance to say thank you for all the love and support they receive from their grandparents. Patsy was shortlisted for the national award from hundreds of entries. She was nominated by her granddaughter Gina‚ aged 13‚ to thank her grandma for taking her in when it looked she was going to have to go into care following the death of her mother. Patsy has supported Gina through difficult times and Gina has been there when her grandmother needed her‚ nursing her after a cancerous tumour was removed from her lungs. In 2009 Christine Levin from Falmouth‚ Cornwall‚ was crowned the UK’s best grandparent, again nominated by her granddaughter.
But there are also problems associated with the role of the caring grandparent. A study in London showed that children did better if they went to nursery school than if they were cared for by their grandparents. Their social skills at 3 years were worse and they had more behavioural problems already at 9 months, though their vocabulary was better. Worse still, it was found in the US that grandparents who looked after grandchildren or lived with them were in worse health. A recent study found that for many, friends and hobbies are more satisfying for the old than grandchildren.
With regard to the age of parents, researchers analysed the scores of children who had been tested at regular intervals in a variety of cognitive skills, including thinking and reasoning, memory, understanding, speaking and reading, as well as motor skills. Regardless of their mothers’ ages, the older the fathers, the more likely the children were to have lower scores. By contrast, children with older mothers generally performed higher on the cognitive measures, a finding in line with most other studies, suggesting that these children may benefit from the more nurturing home environments associated with the generally higher income and education levels of older mothers.
There are great benefits to be had from pairing the elderly with pets, but there are also some risks and one has to be careful in the selection of a dog. Companion dogs can be very comforting and can bring much joy to any elderly person, and studies have proved that the overall wellbeing of old people can be improved when sharing love with a four-footed friend. Doctors, social workers, home care workers and nursing homes recommend companion animals to help the elderly, and this includes not just dogs but birds and cats. Dogs can provide more than just affection: studies have shown that they can lower blood pressure, offer a sense of security and safety, and decrease feelings of isolation. There is also good evidence that touch is very important to the wellbeing of humans. A cat curled up in the lap or the friendly touch of a dog’s nose can give a sense of reassurance and satisfaction. Stroking a beloved pet can lower blood pressure and lift depression. The elderly will be kept active by feeding, grooming and caring for their pets. Dogs get them out of their living quarters and into the fresh air and sunshine, and this also helps them to get to know other people in the neighbourhood. Caring for a pet’s needs gives the elderly an incentive to maintain their normal activities.
Ageing is more than an innate physical process; it also reflects patterns and choices made at individual and societal levels. The proportion of older people in England’s rural areas is significantly higher than in urban areas. It is a trend that is likely to continue, as more people move to the countryside for quality-of-life reasons in their middle age, and stay on into retirement. Findings from Age Concern show that almost all older people in rural areas consider their local post office to be ‘a lifeline’‚ with over half of over-60s in the countryside fearing that post office closures would leave them more isolated. Rural post offices provide much more than just a postal service to older people. Many pensioners use their post office as a ‘one-stop shop’ to access their pension and benefits‚ pay their bills‚ get advice and information‚ and meet and socialise with others. Closures leave many older people increasingly financially and socially excluded.
A survey of nearly 14,000 people confirmed that the happiest older people are those living in the country. One in ten picked Devon as the best place for old people to retire to. Cornwall also got high ratings. Many were aspirational, seeing retirement as the start of a new life, as they may have 20 years left. Nearly half of over-50s plan to move when they retire and just 3 per cent thought of moving to London—less then 1 per cent thought it a desirable place to live, with the high cost of living being a significant factor. Many older people in London are afraid to go out and feel very isolated.
It is almost inevitable that with age there is an increasing likelihood of an individual living alone, and loneliness can be painful. About one in ten people aged 65 and over, the equivalent of more than one million older people, perceive themselves to be often or always lonely. Millions of elderly people do experience loneliness. Nearly half a million older people leave their houses only once a week and a further 300,000 are entirely housebound. Half a million of those over 65 spend Christmas day alone. Loss of local services such as post offices and small shops makes things worse. Children, partners and friends matter. Approximately twice as many people in the poorest wealth quintile compared with the richest feel isolated often or some of the time. Living alone, in turn, is more common in the poorer wealth groups. Not surprisingly, feeling left out is more common for people living without a spouse or with a spouse with whom they do not have a close relationship. Three in five women of 75 and older live alone, while less than a third of men of similar age do. Household size decreases with age more sharply for women than for men, with two thirds of women and one third of men aged 80 years and over living alone, compared to one in ten of both men and women in their early 50s. Many are home-owners, but many of the homes lived in are in a bad state. Over 80 per cent of older people want to stay in their own homes, which is hardly surprising, but about one half of those over 75 living in their own homes have a disability. Some 400 people aged 80 and over marry each year in the UK—more men than women, as the men marry younger women.
Those who are considered to be severely socially excluded belong to one or more of these categories: those aged 80 years and above, those who live alone, have no living children, have poor health, suffer depression, never use public transport, or do not own their accommodation. Social exclusion is also related to low income, those whose main source of income is via benefits, are unemployed, or take no physical exercise. Those who are socially excluded include some of the most deprived among the older population.
There is not much public effort to improve the lifestyle of the elderly in towns and with transport, but in London pensioners’ playgrounds are planned for Hyde Park and other areas, with fitness equipment and an outdoor gym. These will be less intimidating and expensive than normal gyms. Buses need to be designed so the elderly can easily get on and off. A positive feature is that there are concessions for the fares of the old on public transport. Some 4 to 5 million in the US use mobility devices.
The lack of public lavatories makes it hard for the elderly in town centres, and unrepaired pavements can cause serious falls. In Japan, however, one fifth of whose population of 128 million is over 65, attempts are being made to cater for the elderly, including cars designed to be more responsive when the old are driving and even elderly porn. In the Sugamo region of Tokyo, the elderly flourish. Shop fronts have been modified to deal with wheelchairs and the goods in them are what the elderly need—including many medicines and walking aids. Most of the shops in Sugamo are barrier-free, giving easy access to people with canes, walkers or wheelchairs. Moreover, the layout of each shop is open and the height of the counter is rather low, and they provide an atmosphere where shop staff and customers can easily communicate. In the UK, a business network called Engage have established AGE OK to give credit to old-age-friendly products or schemes, the first being for remote controls for TV to help with poor sight.
There are currently about 1 million in the UK people of retirement age in full or part-time work, a significant increase in number. Those with middle incomes and wealth are the most likely to stay in work as they approach state pension age. The poor often stop work through ill-health or disability. Four out of five people with a compulsory retirement age in their job would not want to work beyond it. A survey in the US found that about half of those working beyond retirement age did so because they wanted to and only 17 per cent did so because they needed the money. Banks have been accused of deliberately misleading vulnerable elderly into gambling their savings in risky investments. It would be sensible for those over 70 to bring an adviser with them when thinking of such investments, and a senior manager should be involved.
Retirement only came to industrial societies in the twentieth century, when people were living much longer—before that working lives mainly ended with death. A 65-year-old man can now expect to live another 16 years. As individuals approach retirement, they need to decide when to stop working and to examine their financial situation, particularly their pensions. Age for retirement varies, but 65 is common, and it affects the cost of pensions. State money for the old came after the Old Age Pensions Act in 1909, paying an amount of between 10p and 25p a week from age 70, on a means-tested basis. Then the Contributory Pensions Act in 1925 set up a state scheme for manual workers and others earning up to £250 a year—the pension was 50p a week from age 65. In 1946 the National Insurance Act introduced contributory state pensions for all. The basic state pension is a ‘contribution based’ benefit, and depends on an individual’s National Insurance contributions, a system of insurance against illness and unemployment. For someone with the full number of qualifying years, typically 44 for a man and 39 for a woman, it is payable at a flat rate of £95.25 per week (2009/10). Less pension is paid if there are fewer qualifying years. The first report of the government’s Pension Commission in 2004 outlined some of the main challenges facing UK pension provision; it suggested that either taxes will have to rise or people will have to work longer and save more, or face poverty in old age.
There is an old saying that old people yearn for retirement, but that many who have retired regret it. Ernest Hemingway said that retirement was the worst word in the English language as it indicated the loss of the activity that was at the centre of one’s life. Denial of ageing can be very common. The restaurateur Antonio Carlucci sees retirement as death. Compulsory retirement below 65 is unlawful unless the employer can provide an objective reason. A worker can see their employment end at the age of 65 without any redundancy payment—even if they do not want to retire. However, there is a compelling case for the retirement age to rise, mainly so that the individuals can continue to earn money. The UK coalition government has recently decided to abolish the compulsory retirement age by October 2011. The young see the increase in the retirement age as blocking their own promotion, but not that there is a problem in how to financially support all those who have retired.
A survey suggested that about half of retirees found the current law satisfying, and only 7 per cent found it unsatisfying. One third said that spending more time with their families was a good reason for retirement, yet an increasing proportion of those in their mid-50s expect to be working after 65. Poor health plays a major role in deciding when to retire—more so than finance. But the nature of the job has an influence, as one third of those over 70 with jobs held managerial and professional positions.
The Employment Equality (Age) Regulations 2006 gave an employee approaching 65 the right to ask to continue working, but an employer can refuse without any explanation. The age regulations do not require an employer to give a reason for a refusal to grant an employee’s request to continue working; the obligation is only to consider the request, to follow the correct procedures in relation to adhering to the time limits, and hold a meeting with the employee to discuss the matter. Some 25,000 are forced out of work each year for this reason. The Horndal effect shows how useful and competent older workers can be: production at a steel mill in Sweden went up 15 per cent as workers aged, with annual output per worker increased steadily for 15 years with no additional investment.
When the UK government scrapped the mandatory retirement age for civil servants from April 2010, they were lauded for being progressive. It would have been hypocrisy to send 65-year-old civil servants home for good, while the House of Commons was, before the recent general election packed with 89 MPs over the retirement age of 65. People over 60 are more active than ever before, and it is only right that the state recognise this. Many of the votes that keep MPs in office are from the over 65s. The House of Lords is often referred to as Britain’s most expensive retirement home, since in 2010 the average age was 69. It can be argued that they have a significant collective wisdom that comes with age. Judges in the UK retire at 70, while in Canada, for federally appointed judges, retirement is mandatory at age 75, and in the USA Supreme Court judges have no retirement age and effectively have life tenure. An 89-year-old Supreme Court Justice recently commented: ‘You can say I will retire within the next three years. I’m sure of that.’ University professors in the US do not have a mandatory retirement age—lucky them. In Germany, a new law abolishing the compulsory retirement age of 68 for GPs and specialists in primary care recently came into effect.
Politicians can also work till they are old in other countries. But these days, not even in China do politicians work as long as they do in Italy. Former President Giorgio Napolitano was 84, and former Prime Minister Romano Prodi 70. In India—a young nation, where almost 75 per cent of their billion-plus population is below 40 years old, and over half have not even passed the age of 25—some see it as ironical that most of their top politicians are in their 70s and some are over 80.
I have now, aged 80, found retirement quite hard. I miss my group of fellow scientists, mainly PhD students with whom I worked. I still have a room at University College and go in to seminars and very occasionally lecture. I am fortunately still invited to talk at various meetings, including some outside the UK. Most of my time is spent at home writing books, like this one. I do it lying on my bed with the computer on my lap. But I still play tennis twice a week, jog slowly once a week, and cycle here and there. One of the pleasures of being a retired scientist is that I no longer have to apply for research grants and regularly publish good papers, or mark exam papers. But I do miss the research, even though I doubt that I am now competent to cope with the new technical advances in my subject, developmental biology. There are, for example, new techniques for identifying which genes are active in different places at different stages, which are now a bit beyond me. There are also, I regret, times when I wonder what the point of continuing to live really is.
Comparatively, Eastern civilisations have shown more respect to the old than those in the West. But even in India, where the old have not been seen as an eyesore struggling for existence as in some other societies, the elderly face a number of problems, such as poverty, illiteracy and inadequate health care. Most of the elderly in India are dependent on their children or close relatives. When the young leave home, there is a loss of sense of purpose to life. Youngsters dominate the workforce, with 20–35 being the desired age. Plans for 470,000 needy elderly to remain in their own homes will cost £670 million, and where will this money come from? And the definition of ‘old’ in other cultures can be very different: 40 may be considered over the hill, you do not stand a chance once you cross the landmark 50, and 60 is positively ancient! In China attitudes towards the elderly are more positive than those in the West, but a 2007 survey showed that student-age Chinese were less positive than the middle-aged.
In some societies the old are revered. In non-industrial societies the office of chieftainship is not infrequently occupied by aged persons, although in late life some of their authority and duties may be delegated to others. Among such people it is most unusual to reach the age of 65, so generally those of 50 are looked upon as being old. Important factors in societies where the old are respected include their active association with others, and assistance in their interests and enterprises. They can be regarded as repositories of knowledge, imparters of valuable information, and as having the ability to deal with the fearful supernatural powers. In societies without magic the attitude to the aged varies. The proportion of the old who remain active in these primitive societies is higher than in wealthier civilisations, for they utilise the services of their few old people. Probably nowhere has age received greater homage than among the Palaungs of North Burma, who attribute long life to virtue in a previous life. ‘No one dares step upon their shadow lest harm befall him.’ It is such a privilege and honour to be old among the Palaungs that as soon as a girl marries she is eager to appear older than her age. Examples of the glorification of old age in legends and stories are common in these societies.
Among the Zande in the Sudan magic predominates, and the old can have authority by virtue of their supernatural powers. Similarly among the Navajo in Arizona, magic gives the old authority. Memory can also give authority to the old, as among the Moslem Mendes in Sierra Leone; the chief must know the country’s history and the lives and families of the founders. The Incas were a militant nation and everyone had to work from an early age; when over 50 they no longer had to do military service but continued to do useful work, sometimes to over 80.
But in most pre-industrial cultures—as Leo Simmons’s book Role of the Aged in Primitive Society, on which this section is largely based, shows—life’s last chapter has been a bitter one. There have been examples where the old were actually killed off. Surviving folklore reflects widespread resignation as to the inevitability of impoverishment, failing health and vitality, and the loss of family and community status. Such euphemisms as ‘golden years’ and ‘senior citizens’ rarely exist. Many primitive societies did not encourage the survival of the old; either they were left to their lot or sacrificed. Among the Yakuts, who live a semi-nomadic life in Siberia, life was very hard, and the father dominated the family until old age made him feeble, at which time the sons took over and treated him almost as a slave.
The extreme authority of aged fathers over their descendants is not uncommon. Nevertheless, there are cases where very aged parents are pitifully abused by their children and other relatives. In general, both old men and old women tend to receive better care in agricultural societies, where residence is permanent and where the food supply can be kept more or less constant. Among the Hopi in Arizona, a herding and farming people, old men tend their flocks until feeble and nearly blind. When unable to go to the fields any longer, they sit in the house where they can do handiwork like weaving blankets, or making sandals. The old frequently express the desire to ‘keep on working’ until they die. Among the Hopi there are many accounts of the amazing powers and exploits of old people.
One observer notes: ‘Retirement is impossible at any age.’ The old are less useful in societies characterised by collecting, hunting and perhaps fishing, as these are not skills they any longer have. For the old without children or wealth everywhere, times can be hard.