The War of 1812, called “the second war of independence” and “the war nobody won,” was an unpopular conflict between the United States and Great Britain that was urged on the country by a warmongering Congress. Now nearly forgotten, it had its origins in trade disputes, anger at the British navy’s practice of impressing American merchantmen into service, and the British military’s support of Native American armed resistance to the northwest frontier expansion. Sentiment among congressional War Hawks—who controlled both houses of Congress—that the British ought to be driven from Canada further fueled the push for a military response to American grievances.
The war that inspired the writing of “The Star-Spangled Banner” caught most Americans by surprise and found the young country unprepared to fight. When President James Madison signed the declaration of war on June 18, 1812, the United States had neither sufficient troops nor the money to pay them. Undaunted and hoping for a quick victory, the Americans decided to first launch an assault on Canada, thus gaining control of the Great Lakes waterways. The campaign was a disaster in every possible way; in fact, by the end of 1812 the army’s war efforts for the entire year had been described in the press as an unbroken series of disaster, defeat, and disgrace.
Fortunately, the opposite was true at sea, where America won a series of victories over the vaunted British navy. But in 1814, Britain, which had been directing most of its military resources toward a war with France, emerged victorious against Napoleon and now sought revenge for the humiliation of its navy. Britain turned its full fury on its former colonies, blockading the Atlantic coast and sending battle-hardened troops across the ocean to whip the Yankees.
The strategic location of the Chesapeake Bay near the American capital made it a prime target for British troops. Unfortunately, American Secretary of War John Armstrong had been convinced the attack would be on Baltimore, sending troops to that city and leaving Washington almost totally undefended—a decision that would cost him his job. From the beginning, the British plan was never to occupy Washington but to capture and destroy it.
On August 23, 1814, President Madison received a letter from Secretary of State James Monroe warning of the British army’s advance and urging him to leave Washington as quickly as possible. By now, Sir George Cockburn, the British naval commander, had sealed off the mouth of the Chesapeake Bay like a cork in a bottle. Particularly keen for revenge for American attacks in Canada, which included the burning of York (present-day Toronto), Cockburn allowed his men to loot and set fire to three Maryland towns in preparation for the big prize of Washington, D.C.
On the morning of August 24, Madison rode on horseback to nearby Bladensburg, Maryland, to join his army—and very nearly led his party directly into enemy lines. The American army disintegrated at Bladensburg as seasoned redcoats led by General Robert Ross attacked. In Washington, panicked citizens fled the city, turning it into a ghost town. Among the last to leave was Dolley Madison, the president’s wife. Remaining at the White House until the British were nearly at the city’s edge, she loaded up a wagon with valuables that included a copy of the Declaration of Independence. She also had a large Gilbert Stuart portrait of George Washington cut out of its frame and transported to safety.
As she left, the British poured into the deserted city at nightfall, firing on the Capitol and building a bonfire inside the building that set alight both wings and eventually caused the wood-domed roof to crash to the floor. The fire destroyed the Supreme Court and demolished the entire three-thousand-book collection of the Library of Congress. Horrified Washingtonians saw the Capitol ablaze and the Union Jack flying above it.
From there, the British marched to the White House, where they ate and drank their fill of a meal that had been prepared for Madison’s cabinet. At the urging of Cockburn and Ross, soldiers looted the place before setting fire to every room of the building. By the time they were finished, nothing was left of the Madison’s personal property or the valuable furniture, much of which had been left by Madison’s predecessor, Thomas Jefferson. Miraculously, the sandstone walls survived the intense heat; later numerous heavy coats of paint to cover the scorch marks would give the President’s House a new name: the White House.
The British destruction of Washington resumed on August 25 as soldiers torched other public buildings, including the Post Office, the State and War departments, and what remained of the Navy Yard, which the Americans had burned preemptively. Later that day a tornado passed through the city, followed by a fierce rainstorm whose rains and powerful winds extinguished the fires. That evening the British departed.
America’s complete humiliation at having its capital destroyed did what President Madison had been unable to do: fire up American patriotism and unite most of the country behind the war. After the destruction of Washington, the Americans would never suffer a serious defeat and the enemy would never enjoy a major victory in the War of 1812.