On many projects, instability jumps unexpectedly on occasions, such as when a supplier suddenly announces that he will not deliver on time, a product does not perform as predicted, or an algorithm does not scale as expected.
You might think that you should strive for maximum stability on a project.
However, the appropriate amount of stability to target varies by topic, by project priorities, and by stage in the project. Different experts have different recommendations about how to deal with the varying rates of changes across the work products and the project stages.
Figure 4-10. Reducing fluctuations over the course of a project.
Figure 4-11. Successful serial development takes longer (but fewer workdays) compared to successful concurrent development.
The simplest approach is to say, "Don't start designing until the requirements are Stable (with a capital 'S'); don't start programming until the design is Stable,” and so on. This is serial development. Its two advantages make it attractive to many people. It is, however, fraught with problems.
The first advantage is its simplicity. The person doing the scheduling simply sequences the activities one after the other, scheduling a downstream activity to start when an upstream one gets finished.
The second advantage is that, if there are no major surprises that force a change to the requirements or the design, a manager can minimize the number of work-hours spent on the project, by carefully scheduling when people arrive to work on their particular tasks.
There are three problems, though.
The first problem is that the elapsed time needed for the project is the straight sum of the times needed for requirements, design, programming, test, and so on. This is the longest time that can be needed for the project. With the most careful management, the project manager will get the longest elapsed time at the minimum labor cost. For projects on which reducing elapsed time is a top priority; this is a bad tradeoff.
The second problem is that surprises usually do crop up during the project. When one does, it causes unexpectedly revision of the requirements or design, raising the development cost. In the end, the project manager minimizes neither the labor cost nor the development time.
The third problem is absence of feedback from the downstream activities to the upstream activities.
In rare instances, the people doing the upstream activity can produce high-quality results without feedback from the downstream team. On most projects, though, the people creating the requirements need to see a running version of what they ordered, so they can correct and finalize their requests. Usually, after seeing the system in action, they change their requests, which forces changes in the design, coding, testing, and so on. Incorporating these changes lengthens the project's elapsed time and increases total project costs.
Selecting the serial-development strategy really only makes sense if you can be sure that the team will be able to produce good, final requirements and design on the first pass. Few teams can do this.
Figure 4-12. In serial development, each workgroup waits for the upstream workgroup to achieve complete stability before starting.
Figure 4-13. In concurrent development, each group starts as early as its communications and rework capabilities indicate. As it progresses, the upstream group passes update information to the downstream group in a continuous stream (the dashed arrows).
A different strategy, concurrent development, shortens the elapsed time and provides feedback opportunities at the cost of increased rework. Figure 4-11 and Figure 4-13 illustrate it, and Principle 7, "Efficiency is expendable away from bottleneck activities," on page ???, analyzes it further. [Insert cross-reference. Verify figure numbers.]
In concurrent development, each downstream activity starts at some point judged to be appropriate with respect to the completeness and stability of the upstream team's work (different downstream groups may start at different moments with respect to their upstream groups, of course). The downstream team starts operating with the available information, and as the upstream team continues work, it passes new information along to the downstream team.
To the extent that the downstream team guesses right about where the upstream team is going and the upstream team does not encounter major surprises, the downstream team will get its work approximately right. The team will do some rework along the way, as new information shows up.
The key issue in concurrent development is judging the completeness, stability, rework capability, and communication effectiveness of the teams.
The advantages of concurrent development are twofold, the exact opposites of the disadvantages of serial development:
· The upstream teams get feedback from the downstream teams. The designers can indicate how difficult the requirements are to implement. The programmers may produce code soon enough for the requirements group to get feedback on the desirability of the requirements.
· Although each downstream activity takes longer than it would if done serially and the upstream team never changed its mind, the downstream activity starts much earlier. The net effect is that the downstream team finishes sooner than it otherwise would, possibly just a few days or weeks after the upstream work is finished.
Such concurrent development is described as the Gold Rush strategy in Surviving Object-Oriented Projects (Cockburn 1998). The Gold Rush strategy presupposes both good communication and rework capacity. The Gold Rush strategy is suited to situations in which the requirements gathering is predicted to go on for longer than can be tolerated in the project plan, so there would simply not be enough time for proper design if the next team had to wait for the requirements to settle.
Actually, many projects fit this profile.
Gold-Rush-type strategies are not risk free. There are three pitfalls to watch out for:
· The first pitfall is overdoing the strategy; for example, allowing the design team to get ahead of the requirements team (Figure 4-14). One such team announced one day that its design was already stable and ready for review. The team was just waiting for the requirements people to hurry up and generate the requirements!
Figure 4-14. Keeping upstream activities more stable than downstream activities. The wavy lines show the instability of work products in requirements and design. In the healthy situation (left) both fluctuate at the same time, but the requirements fluctuation is smaller than the design. In the unhealthy situation, the design is already stable before the requirements have even started settling down!
· The second pitfall is when the communications path between the teams is not rich enough. If the teams are geographically separated, for example, it is harder for the upstream team to pass along its changing information. As the communications cost rises, it eventually becomes more effective to wait for greater stability in the upstream work before triggering the downstream team.
· The third pitfall is making a mistake in estimating a team's rework capacity. Where a team has little or no spare capacity, it must be given much more stable inputs to work from.
16 Smalltalkers, 2 Database Designers
One project had 16 Smalltalk programmers and only two database designers.
In this situation, we could let the Smalltalk programmers start working as soon as the requirements were starting to shape up. At the same time, we could not afford to trigger the database designers to start their work until the object model had been given passing marks in its design review.
Only after the object model had passed "stable enough for review" and actually been reviewed, with the DBAs in the review group, could the DBAs take the time to start their design work.
The complete discussion about when and where to apply concurrent development is presented in Principle 7 of methodology design, "Rework is acceptable away from bottleneck activities," on page ???. [Insert cross-reference.]
The point to understand now is that stability plays a role in methodology design.
Both XP and Adaptive Software Development (Highsmith 2000) suggest maximizing concurrency. This is because both are intended for situations with strong time-to-market priorities and requirements that are likely to change as a consequence of producing the emerging system.
Fixed-price contracts often benefit from a mixed strategy: In those situations, it is useful to have the requirements quite stable before getting far into design. The mix will vary by project. Sometimes, the company making the bid may do some designing or even coding just to prepare its bid.
Figure 4-15. Role-deliverable-milestone view of a methodology.
Publishing a Methodology
Publishing a methodology has two components: the pictorial view and the text itself.
The Pictorial View
One way to present the design of a methodology is to show how the roles interact across work products (Figure 4-15). In such a "Role-Deliverable-Milestone" view, time runs from left to right across the page, roles are represented as broad bands across the page, and work products are shown as single lines within a band. The line of a work product shows critical events in its life: its birth event (what causes someone to create it), its review events (who examines it), and its death event (at what moment it ceases to have relevance, if ever).